SherbyNet - /page/wikibook/entry.mu

Micron Document

<!DOCTYPE html>

<title>Web tracking</title>

</head>

Web tracking

</h1>

</header>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="Website_tracking" title="Website tracking">Website tracking</a>.</div>

Web tracking is the practice by which operators of <a href="Website" title="Website">websites</a> and third parties collect, store and share information about visitors' activities on the <a href="World_Wide_Web" title="World Wide Web">World Wide Web</a>. Analysis of a user's behaviour may be used to provide content that enables the operator to infer their preferences and may be of interest to various parties, such as advertisers.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> Web tracking can be part of visitor management.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a>

The uses of web tracking include the following:

<ul><li>Advertising companies actively collect information about users and make profiles that are used to individualize advertisements. User activities include websites visited, watched videos, interactions on social networks, and online transactions. Websites like <a href="Netflix" title="Netflix">Netflix</a> and <a href="YouTube" title="YouTube">YouTube</a> collect information about what shows users watch, which helps them suggest more shows that they might like. Search engines like <a href="Google" title="Google">Google</a> will keep a record of what users search for, which could help them suggest more relevant searches in the future.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a></li>

<li><a href="Law_enforcement_agency" title="Law enforcement agency">Law enforcement agencies</a> may use web tracking to spy on individuals and solve crimes.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></li>

<li><a href="Web_analytics" title="Web analytics">Web analytics</a> focuses more on the performance of a website as a whole. Web tracking will give insight on how a website is being used and see how long a user spends on a certain page. This can be used to see who may have the most interest in the content of the website.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a></li>

<li>Usability tests is the practice of testing how easy a design is to use. Users are observed as they complete tasks.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> This would help identify usability problems with a website's design so they can be fixed for easier navigation.</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Methods">Methods</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="IP_address">IP address</h3></div>

Every device connected to the Internet is assigned a unique <a href="IP_address" title="IP address">IP address</a>, which is needed to enable devices to communicate with each other. With appropriate software on the host website, the IP address of visitors to the site can be logged and can also be used to determine the visitor's <a href="Geolocation" class="mw-redirect" title="Geolocation">geographical location</a>.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> Logging the IP address can, for example, monitor if a person voted more than once, as well as their viewing pattern. Knowing the visitor's location indicates, besides other things, the country. This may, for example, result in prices being quoted in the local currency, the price or the range of goods that are available, special conditions applying and in some cases requests from or responses to a certain country being blocked entirely. Internet users may <a href="Internet_censorship_circumvention" title="Internet censorship circumvention">circumvent censorship</a> and <a href="Geo-blocking" title="Geo-blocking">geo-blocking</a> and protect personal identity and location to stay anonymous on the internet using a <a href="Virtual_Private_Network" class="mw-redirect" title="Virtual Private Network">VPN</a> connection.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="HTTP_cookie">HTTP cookie</h3></div>

A <a href="HTTP_cookie" title="HTTP cookie">HTTP cookie</a> is code and information embedded onto a user's device by a website when the user visits the website.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> The website might then retrieve the information on the cookie on subsequent visits to the website by the user. Cookies can be used to customise the user's browsing experience and to deliver targeted ads.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> Some browsing activities that cookies can store are:

<ul><li>pages and content a user browsed,</li>

<li>what a user searched online,</li>

<li>when a user clicked on an online advertisement,</li>

<li>what time a user visited a site.</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First-_and_third-party_cookies">First- and third-party cookies</h3></div>

A first-party cookie is created by the website the user is visiting. These cookies are considered "good" since they help the user rather than spy on them. The main goal of first-party cookies is to recognize the user and their preferences so that their desired settings can be applied.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a>

A third-party cookie is created by websites other than the one a user visits. They insert additional tracking code that can record a user's online activity. On-site analytics refers to data collection on the current site. It is used to measure many aspects of user interactions, including the number of times a user visits.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a>

Restrictions on third-party cookies introduced by <a href="Web_browser" title="Web browser">web browsers</a> are bypassed by some tracking companies using a technique called <a href="CNAME_cloaking" class="mw-redirect" title="CNAME cloaking">CNAME cloaking</a>, where a third-party tracking service is assigned a <a href="Domain_Name_System" title="Domain Name System">DNS</a> record in the first-party origin domain (usually <a href="CNAME_record" title="CNAME record">CNAME</a>) so that it's masqueraded as first-party even though it's a separate entity in legal and organizational terms. This technique is blocked by some browsers and ad blockers using block lists of known trackers.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="ETags">ETags</h3></div>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="HTTP_ETag#Tracking_using_ETags" title="HTTP ETag">HTTP ETag § Tracking using ETags</a>.[<a class="external text external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=HTTP_ETag&action=edit">edit</a>]</div><div class="excerpt">

ETags can be used to track unique users,<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> as <a href="HTTP_cookie" title="HTTP cookie">HTTP cookies</a> are increasingly being deleted by privacy-aware users. In July 2011, <a href="Ashkan_Soltani" title="Ashkan Soltani">Ashkan Soltani</a> and a team of researchers at <a href="UC_Berkeley" class="mw-redirect" title="UC Berkeley">UC Berkeley</a> reported that a number of websites, including <a href="Hulu" title="Hulu">Hulu</a>, were using ETags for tracking purposes.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> Hulu and KISSmetrics have both ceased "respawning" as of 29 July 2011,<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> as KISSmetrics and over 20 of its clients are facing a <a href="Class-action_lawsuit" class="mw-redirect" title="Class-action lawsuit">class-action lawsuit</a> over the use of "undeletable" <a href="Tracking_cookies" class="mw-redirect" title="Tracking cookies">tracking cookies</a> partially involving the use of ETags.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a>

Because ETags are cached by the browser and returned with subsequent requests for the same resource, a tracking server can simply repeat any ETag received from the browser to ensure an assigned ETag persists indefinitely (in a similar way to <a href="Persistent_cookie" class="mw-redirect" title="Persistent cookie">persistent cookies</a>). Additional caching headers can also enhance the preservation of ETag data.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a>

ETags may be flushable by clearing the <a href="Browser_cache" class="mw-redirect" title="Browser cache">browser cache</a> (implementations vary).</div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_methods">Other methods</h3></div>

<ul><li><a href="Canvas_fingerprinting" title="Canvas fingerprinting">Canvas fingerprinting</a> allows websites to identify and track users using HTML5 canvas elements instead of using a browser cookie.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a></li>

<li><a href="Cross-device_tracking" title="Cross-device tracking">Cross-device tracking</a> are used by advertisers to help identify which channels are most successful in helping convert browsers into buyers.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a></li>

<li><a href="Click-through_rate" title="Click-through rate">Click-through rate</a> is used by advertisers to measure the number of clicks they receive on their ads per number of impressions.</li>

<li><a href="Mouse_tracking" title="Mouse tracking">Mouse tracking</a> collects the user's mouse cursor positions on the computer.</li>

<li><a href="Browser_fingerprinting" class="mw-redirect" title="Browser fingerprinting">Browser fingerprinting</a> relies on your browser and is a way of identifying users every time they go online and track your activity. Through fingerprinting, websites can determine the user's operating system, language, time zone, and browser version without your permission.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a></li>

<li><a href="HTTP_cookie#Supercookie" title="HTTP cookie">Supercookies</a> or "<a href="Evercookie" title="Evercookie">evercookies</a>" can not only be used to track users across the web, but they are also hard to detect and difficult to remove since they are stored in a different place than the standard cookies.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a></li>

<li><a href="Session_replay" title="Session replay">Session replay</a> scripts allows the ability to replay a visitor's journey on a <a href="Web_site" class="mw-redirect" title="Web site">web site</a> or within a <a href="Mobile_application" class="mw-redirect" title="Mobile application">mobile application</a> or <a href="Web_application" title="Web application">web application</a>.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a></li>

<li>"Redirect tracking" is the use of <a href="Redirect_page" class="mw-redirect" title="Redirect page">redirect pages</a> to track users across websites.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a></li>

<li><a href="Web_beacon" title="Web beacon">Web beacons</a> are commonly used to report that an individual who <a href="Email_tracking" title="Email tracking">received an email</a> has read it.</li>

<li><a href="Favicon" title="Favicon">Favicons</a> can be used to track users since they persist across browsing sessions.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a></li>

<li><a href="Federated_Learning_of_Cohorts" title="Federated Learning of Cohorts">Federated Learning of Cohorts</a> (FLoC), trialed in <a href="Google_Chrome" title="Google Chrome">Google Chrome</a> in 2021, which intends to replace existing behavioral tracking which relies on tracking individual user actions and aggregating them on the server side with web browser declaring their membership in a behavioral cohort.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> <a href="Electronic_Frontier_Foundation" title="Electronic Frontier Foundation">EFF</a> has criticized FLoC as retaining the fundamental paradigm of <a href="Surveillance_capitalism" title="Surveillance capitalism">surveillance economy</a>, where "each user's behavior follows them from site to site as a label, inscrutable at a glance but rich with meaning to those in the know".<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a></li>

<li>"UID smuggling" (method of tracking users on the Internet that allows user identifiers (UIDs) to be synchronized across different sites) was found to be prevalent and largely not mitigated by latest protection tools – such as <a href="Firefox" title="Firefox">Firefox</a>'s tracking protection and <a href="UBlock_Origin" title="UBlock Origin">uBlock Origin</a> – by a 2022 study, which also contributed to countermeasures.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-10.1145/3517745.3561415-32">[32]</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Controversy">Controversy</h2></div>

Web browsing is linked to a user's personal information. Location, interests, purchases, and more can be revealed just by what page a user visits. This allows them to draw conclusions about a user, and analyze patterns of activity.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> Use of web tracking can be controversial when applied in the context of a private individual; and to varying degrees is subject to legislation such as the <a href="Electronic_Commerce_Directive" class="mw-redirect" title="Electronic Commerce Directive">EU's eCommerce Directive</a> and the UK's <a href="Data_Protection_Act_1998" title="Data Protection Act 1998">Data Protection Act</a>. When it is done without the knowledge of a user, it may be considered a breach of <a href="Browser_security" title="Browser security">browser security</a>.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Justification">Justification</h2></div>

In a <a href="Business-to-business" title="Business-to-business">business-to-business</a> context, understanding a visitor's behavior in order to identify <a href="Buyer_decision_process" title="Buyer decision process">buying intentions</a> is seen by many commercial organizations as an effective way to <a href="Behavioral_targeting" class="mw-redirect" title="Behavioral targeting">target</a> <a href="Marketing" title="Marketing">marketing</a> activities.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> Visiting companies can be approached, both online and offline, with marketing and sales <a href="Customer_value_proposition" title="Customer value proposition">propositions</a> which are relevant to their current requirements. From the point of view of a sales organization, engaging with a potential customer when they are actively looking to buy can produce savings in otherwise wasted marketing funds.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prevention">Prevention</h2></div>

The most advanced protection tools are or include <a href="Firefox" title="Firefox">Firefox</a>'s tracking protection and the <a href="Browser_extension" title="Browser extension">browser add-ons</a> <a href="UBlock_Origin" title="UBlock Origin">uBlock Origin</a> and <a href="Privacy_Badger" title="Privacy Badger">Privacy Badger</a>.<a href="#cite_note-10.1145/3517745.3561415-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-nytimesaddons-36">[36]</a>

Moreover, they may include the browser add-on <a href="NoScript" title="NoScript">NoScript</a>, the use of an alternative search engine like <a href="DuckDuckGo" title="DuckDuckGo">DuckDuckGo</a> and the use of a <a href="VPN" class="mw-redirect" title="VPN">VPN</a>. However, VPNs cost money and as of 2023 NoScript may "make general web browsing a pain".<a href="#cite_note-nytimesaddons-36">[36]</a>

<dl><dt>On mobile</dt></dl>

On mobile, the most advanced method may be the use of the <a href="Mobile_browser" title="Mobile browser">mobile browser</a> <a href="Firefox_Focus" title="Firefox Focus">Firefox Focus</a>, which mitigates web tracking on mobile to a large extent, including Total Cookie Protection and similar to the private mode in the conventional Firefox browser.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a>

<dl><dt>Opt-out requests</dt></dl>

Users can also control third-party web tracking to some extent by other means. Opt-out cookies let users block websites from installing future cookies. Websites may be blocked from installing third-party advertisers or cookies on a browser, which will prevent tracking on the user's page.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> <a href="Do_Not_Track" title="Do Not Track">Do Not Track</a> is a web browser setting that can request a web application to disable the tracking of a user. Enabling this feature will send a request to the website users are on to voluntarily disable their cross-site user tracking.

<dl><dt>Privacy mode</dt></dl>

Contrary to popular belief, browser <a href="Privacy_mode" class="mw-redirect" title="Privacy mode">privacy mode</a> does not prevent (all) tracking attempts because it usually only blocks the storage of information on the visitor site (<a href="Browser_cookie" class="mw-redirect" title="Browser cookie">cookies</a>). It does not help, however, against the various <a href="Device_fingerprint" title="Device fingerprint">fingerprinting</a> methods. Such fingerprints can be <a href="De-anonymize" class="mw-redirect" title="De-anonymize">de-anonymized</a>.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> When using a privacy mode, one may not stay logged into a website, and preferences may be lost, because the cookies storing those preferences are deleted by the browser automatically.

<dl><dt>Browsers</dt></dl>

Some <a href="Web_browser" title="Web browser">web browsers</a> use "tracking protection" or "tracking prevention" features to block web trackers.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> The teams behind the <a href="NoScript" title="NoScript">NoScript</a> and <a href="UBlock_Origin" title="UBlock Origin">uBlock</a> add-ons have assisted with developing <a href="Firefox_OS" title="Firefox OS">Firefox's</a> SmartBlock capabilities.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a>

Search Engines

To safeguard user data from tracking by search engines, various privacy focused search engines have been developed as viable alternatives. Examples of such search engines include <a href="DuckDuckGo" title="DuckDuckGo">DuckDuckGo</a>, <a href="MetaGer" title="MetaGer">MetaGer</a>, and <a href="Swisscows" title="Swisscows">Swiscows</a>, which prioritize preventing the storage and tracking of user activity. It's worth noting that while these alternatives offer enhanced privacy, some may not guarantee complete anonymity, and a few might be less user-friendly compared to mainstream search engines such as <a href="Google_Search" title="Google Search">Google</a> and <a href="Microsoft_Bing" title="Microsoft Bing">Microsoft Bing</a>.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a>

<ul><li><a href="Behavioral_analytics" title="Behavioral analytics">Behavioral analytics</a> provides insight into the actions of people when they are online, usually when they purchase products online.</li>

<li><a href="Consumer_Data_Industry_Association" title="Consumer Data Industry Association">Consumer Data Industry Association</a></li>

<li><a href="Employee_monitoring" title="Employee monitoring">Employee monitoring</a> is the use of workplace surveillance to gather information on the activities and locations of employees.</li>

<li><a href="Gemini_space" class="mw-redirect" title="Gemini space">Gemini space</a> and <a href="Gopher_(protocol)" title="Gopher (protocol)">Gopher</a> as alternatives serving mostly textual content without tracking</li>

<li><a href="Google_Chrome#User_tracking_concerns" title="Google Chrome">Google Chrome#User tracking concerns</a></li>

<li><a href="GPS_tracking" class="mw-redirect" title="GPS tracking">GPS tracking</a> can track the location of an entity or object remotely</li>

<li><a href="Internet_privacy" title="Internet privacy">Internet privacy</a> is the level of privacy an individual has while they are connected to the internet <a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a></li>

<li><a href="Information_privacy" title="Information privacy">Information privacy</a></li>

<li><a href="Network_surveillance" class="mw-redirect" title="Network surveillance">Network surveillance</a></li>

<li><a href="Track_and_trace" title="Track and trace">Track and trace</a> is used to track a product's status and monitor their location when transported</li>

<li><a href="Web_analytics" title="Web analytics">Web analytics</a> is the reporting and analysis of website data to improve the user's experience <a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a></li>

<li><a href="Web_beacon" title="Web beacon">Web beacon</a> is an invisible graphic that is placed on a website to monitor the behavior of the user visiting.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><div class="reflist">

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("./mw/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("./mw/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("./mw/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("./mw/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><cite id="CITEREFD._Sundarasen2019" class="citation journal cs1">D. Sundarasen, Sheela Devi (2019-04-08). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1108%2Fprr-10-2016-0003">"Institutional characteristics, signaling variables and IPO initial returns"</a>. PSU Research Review. 3 (1): 29–49. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1108%2Fprr-10-2016-0003">10.1108/prr-10-2016-0003</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2399-1747">2399-1747</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFSamarasingheMannan2019" class="citation journal cs1">Samarasinghe, Nayanamana; Mannan, Mohammad (2019-11-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0167404818314007">"Towards a global perspective on web tracking"</a>. Computers & Security. 87 101569. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cose.2019.101569">10.1016/j.cose.2019.101569</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:199582679">199582679</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFNielsen2021" class="citation journal cs1">Nielsen, Janne (2021-04-27). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s42803-021-00033-4">"Using mixed methods to study the historical use of web beacons in web tracking"</a>. International Journal of Digital Humanities. 2 (1–3): 65–88. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs42803-021-00033-4">10.1007/s42803-021-00033-4</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2524-7832">2524-7832</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:233416836">233416836</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://edu.gcfglobal.org/en/internetsafety/understanding-browser-tracking/1/">"Internet Safety: Understanding Browser Tracking"</a>. GCFGlobal.org. Retrieved 2019-12-13.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFValentino-DeVries2019" class="citation news cs1">Valentino-DeVries, Jennifer (2019-04-13). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221030154139/https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/04/13/us/google-location-tracking-police.html,%20https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/04/13/us/google-location-tracking-police.html">"Tracking Phones, Google Is a Dragnet for the Police (Published 2019)"</a>. The New York Times. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331">0362-4331</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/04/13/us/google-location-tracking-police.html,%20https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/04/13/us/google-location-tracking-police.html">the original</a> on 2022-10-30. Retrieved 2020-10-23.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFKleinbergMishra2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Samantha_Kleinberg" title="Samantha Kleinberg">Kleinberg, Samantha</a>; Mishra, Bud (2008). "PSST". Proceedings of the 17th international conference on World Wide Web. New York, New York, USA: ACM Press. pp. 1143–1144. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F1367497.1367697">10.1145/1367497.1367697</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9781605580852</bdi>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:15179069">15179069</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.interaction-design.org/literature/topics/usability-testing">"What is Usability Testing?"</a>. The Interaction Design Foundation. Retrieved 2019-12-13.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://computer.howstuffworks.com/internet/basics/what-is-an-ip-address.htm">"What is an IP address?"</a>. HowStuffWorks. 2001-01-12. Retrieved 2019-12-13.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://privacy.net/stop-cookies-tracking/">"How cookies track you around the web & how to stop them"</a>. Privacy.net. 2018-02-24. Retrieved 2019-12-13.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFKobusińskaPawluczukBrzeziński2018" class="citation journal cs1">Kobusińska, Anna; Pawluczuk, Kamil; Brzeziński, Jerzy (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0167739X17329965">"Big Data fingerprinting information analytics for sustainability"</a>. Future Generation Computer Systems. 86: 1321–1337. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.future.2017.12.061">10.1016/j.future.2017.12.061</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:49646910">49646910</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFMartin2015" class="citation journal cs1">Martin, Kirsten (2015-12-22). "Data aggregators, consumer data, and responsibility online: Who is tracking consumers online and should they stop?". The Information Society. 32 (1): 51–63. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F01972243.2015.1107166">10.1080/01972243.2015.1107166</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0197-2243">0197-2243</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:205509140">205509140</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ionos.com/digitalguide/hosting/technical-matters/what-are-first-party-cookies/">"What are first-party cookies?"</a>. IONOS Digitalguide. Retrieved 2022-01-13.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFLoshinReifer2013" class="citation cs2">Loshin, David; Reifer, Abie (2013-01-01), Loshin, David; Reifer, Abie (eds.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780124105430000044">"Chapter 4. Customer Lifetime and Value Analytics"</a>, Using Information to Develop a Culture of Customer Centricity, Morgan Kaufmann, pp. 23–31, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9780124105430</bdi>, retrieved 2019-11-11</cite>.

</li>

<li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://thehackreport.com/online-trackers-are-now-shifting-to-new-invasive-cname-cloaking-technique/">"Online Trackers Are Now Shifting To New Invasive CNAME Cloaking Technique"</a>. The Hack Report. 2021-02-27. Retrieved 2021-04-14.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFDimovaAcarOlejnikJoosen2021" class="citation arxiv cs1">Dimova, Yana; Acar, Gunes; Olejnik, Lukasz; Joosen, Wouter; Van Goethem, Tom (2021-02-23). "The CNAME of the Game: Large-scale Analysis of DNS-based Tracking Evasion". <a href="ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/2102.09301">2102.09301</a> [<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/archive/cs.CR">cs.CR</a>].</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.arctic.org/~dean/tracking-without-cookies.html">"tracking without cookies"</a>. 17 February 2003.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFAyensonWambachSoltaniGood2011" class="citation ssrn cs1">Ayenson, Mika D.; Wambach, Dietrich James; Soltani, Ashkan; Good, Nathan; Hoofnagle, Chris Jay (29 July 2011). "Flash Cookies and Privacy II: Now with HTML5 and ETag Respawning". <a href="SSRN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SSRN (identifier)">SSRN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1898390">1898390</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFSoltani2011" class="citation web cs1">Soltani, Ashkan (11 August 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ashkansoltani.org/2011/08/11/respawn-redux-flash-cookies/">"Flash Cookies and Privacy II"</a>. askhansoltani.org. Retrieved 2023-06-27.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFAnthony2011" class="citation web cs1">Anthony, Sebastian (2011-08-04). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.extremetech.com/internet/91966-aol-spotify-gigaom-etsy-kissmetrics-sued-over-undeletable-tracking-cookies">"AOL, Spotify, GigaOm, Etsy, KISSmetrics sued over undeletable tracking cookies"</a>. <a href="ExtremeTech" title="ExtremeTech">ExtremeTech</a>. Retrieved 2023-06-27.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://github.com/lucb1e/cookielesscookies">"Cookieless cookies"</a>. <a href="GitHub" title="GitHub">GitHub</a> lucb1e. 2013-08-25. Retrieved 2023-06-27.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFAndrea_Fortuna2017" class="citation web cs1">Andrea Fortuna (2017-11-06). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.andreafortuna.org/2017/11/06/what-is-canvas-fingerprinting-and-how-the-companies-use-it-to-track-you-online/">"What is Canvas Fingerprinting and how the companies use it to track you online | So Long, and Thanks for All the Fish"</a>. Retrieved 2019-12-13.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFBigCommerce2019" class="citation web cs1">BigCommerce (2019-12-12). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bigcommerce.com/ecommerce-answers/what-cross-device-tracking/">"What is cross-device tracking?"</a>. BigCommerce. Retrieved 2019-12-13.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://koofr.eu/blog/posts/what-is-online-tracking-and-how-do-websites-track-you">"What is online tracking and how do websites track you?"</a>. Koofr blog. Retrieved 2019-12-13.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.trendmicro.com/vinfo/us/security/definition/cookies">"Cookies - Definition - Trend Micro USA"</a>. www.trendmicro.com. Retrieved 2019-12-13.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <cite class="citation cs2"><a class="external text external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Session_replay&oldid=921328991">"Session replay"</a>, Wikipedia, 2019-10-15, retrieved 2019-12-13</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fullstory.com/resources/the-definitive-guide-to-session-replay">"FullStory | Build a More Perfect Digital Experience | FullStory"</a>. www.fullstory.com. Retrieved 2021-04-05.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://developer.mozilla.org/en-US/docs/Web/Privacy/Redirect_tracking_protection">"Redirect tracking protection - Privacy, permissions, and information security | MDN"</a>. developer.mozilla.org. Retrieved 2022-06-29.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFGoodin2021" class="citation web cs1">Goodin, Dan (2021-02-19). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arstechnica.com/information-technology/2021/02/new-browser-tracking-hack-works-even-when-you-flush-caches-or-go-incognito/">"New browser-tracking hack works even when you flush caches or go incognito"</a>. Ars Technica. Retrieved 2021-02-21.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://source.chromium.org/chromium/chromium/src/+/main:components/federated_learning/;drc=3d7d70920a92c08f6a16597f9f44bb28ac98d9a4/">"Federated Learning Component"</a>. source.chromium.org. Retrieved 2023-02-27.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFCyphers2021" class="citation web cs1">Cyphers, Bennett (2021-03-03). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2021/03/googles-floc-terrible-idea">"Google's FLoC Is a Terrible Idea"</a>. Electronic Frontier Foundation. Retrieved 2021-03-05.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFPatringenaru" class="citation news cs1">Patringenaru, Ioana. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://techxplore.com/news/2022-12-web-tracking-technique-bypassing-privacy.html">"New web tracking technique is bypassing privacy protections"</a>. <a href="University_of_California-San_Diego" class="mw-redirect" title="University of California-San Diego">University of California-San Diego</a> via techxplore.com. Retrieved 18 January 2023.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-10.1145/3517745.3561415-32">^ <a href="#cite_ref-10.1145/3517745.3561415_32-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-10.1145/3517745.3561415_32-1">b</a> <cite id="CITEREFRandallSnyderUkaniSnoeren2022" class="citation book cs1">Randall, Audrey; Snyder, Peter; Ukani, Alisha; Snoeren, Alex C.; Voelker, Geoffrey M.; Savage, Stefan; Schulman, Aaron (25 October 2022). "Measuring UID smuggling in the wild". Proceedings of the 22nd ACM Internet Measurement Conference. Association for Computing Machinery. pp. 230–243. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F3517745.3561415">10.1145/3517745.3561415</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9781450392594</bdi>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:250494286">250494286</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFMayerMitchell2012" class="citation book cs1">Mayer, J. R.; Mitchell, J. C. (May 2012). "Third-Party Web Tracking: Policy and Technology". 2012 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy. pp. 413–427. <a href="CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.388.5781">10.1.1.388.5781</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FSP.2012.47">10.1109/SP.2012.47</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-4673-1244-8</bdi>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14652884">14652884</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120719043707/http://www.prospectvision.net/articles/full/Website-visitor-tracking-going-too-far.asp">"Website visitor tracking going too far?"</a>. Prospectvision.net. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.prospectvision.net/articles/full/Website-visitor-tracking-going-too-far.asp">the original</a> on 2012-07-19. Retrieved 2012-08-03.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFWallen2018" class="citation news cs1">Wallen, Jack (24 October 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.techrepublic.com/article/how-to-use-ublock-origin-and-privacy-badger-to-prevent-browser-tracking-in-firefox/">"How to use Ublock Origin and Privacy Badger to prevent browser tracking in Firefox"</a>. TechRepublic. Retrieved 3 February 2023.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-nytimesaddons-36">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nytimesaddons_36-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-nytimesaddons_36-1">b</a> <cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/wirecutter/reviews/our-favorite-ad-blockers-and-browser-extensions-to-protect-privacy/">"Our Favorite Ad Blockers and Browser Extensions to Protect Privacy"</a>. The New York Times. 10 January 2023. Retrieved 3 February 2023.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.zdnet.com/article/mozilla-unveils-total-cookie-protection-for-firefox-focus-on-android/">"Mozilla unveils Total Cookie Protection for Firefox Focus on Android"</a>. ZDNET. Retrieved 3 February 2023.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFChen2021" class="citation news cs1">Chen, Brian X. (31 March 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2021/03/31/technology/personaltech/online-privacy-private-browsers.html">"If You Care About Privacy, It's Time to Try a New Web Browser"</a>. The New York Times. Retrieved 3 February 2023.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.engadget.com/firefox-enables-anti-tracking-feature-by-default-130033590.html">"Firefox enables its anti-tracking feature by default"</a>. Engadget. Retrieved 3 February 2023.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.allaboutcookies.org/manage-cookies/opt-out-cookies.html">"What is an Opt Out Cookie? - All about Cookies"</a>. www.allaboutcookies.org. 27 September 2018. Retrieved 2019-11-11.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> <cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2019/10/31/think-youre-anonymous-online-third-popular-websites-are-fingerprinting-you/">"Think you're anonymous online? A third of popular websites are 'fingerprinting' you"</a>. Washington Post.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mozilla.org/en-US/firefox/42.0/releasenotes/">"Firefox 42.0 release notes"</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFKatz" class="citation news cs1">Katz, Sarah. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://techxplore.com/news/2021-03-firefox-reveals-smartblock-private-browsing.html">"Firefox 87 reveals SmartBlock for private browsing"</a>. techxplore.com. Retrieved 3 February 2023.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFAbdulaziz_Saad_BubukayrFrikha2022" class="citation journal cs1">Abdulaziz Saad Bubukayr, Maryam; Frikha, Mounir (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.32604%2Fjcs.2022.029020">"Web Tracking Domain and Possible Privacy Defending Tools: A Literature Review"</a>. Journal of Cybersecurity. 4 (2): 79–94. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.32604%2Fjcs.2022.029020">10.32604/jcs.2022.029020</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2579-0064">2579-0064</a>.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.winston.com/en/legal-glossary/online-privacy.html">"What is the Definition of Online Privacy? | Winston & Strawn Legal Glossary"</a>. Winston & Strawn. Retrieved 2019-12-13.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.usability.gov/what-and-why/web-analytics.html">"Web Analytics Basics"</a>. www.usability.gov. 2013-10-08. Retrieved 2019-12-13.</cite>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <cite id="CITEREFBeal2002" class="citation web cs1">Beal, Vangie (22 January 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.webopedia.com/TERM/W/Web_beacon.html">"What is Web Beacon? Webopedia Definition"</a>. www.webopedia.com. Retrieved 2019-12-13.</cite>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

<ul><li><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://webtap.princeton.edu/">"Princeton Web Transparency & Accountability Project (WebTap)"</a>. Retrieved 2018-02-20. <q>We monitor websites and services to find out what user data companies collect, how they collect it, and what they do with it. With our measurement platform, we study privacy, security, and ethics of consumer data usage</q></cite>

<ul><li><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://github.com/citp/OpenWPM">"OpenWPM – A privacy measurement framework"</a>. <a href="GitHub" title="GitHub">GitHub</a>. Retrieved 2018-02-20.</cite></li></ul></li></ul>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Website_management308" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}

/* end https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

</style><div id="Website_management308" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Website management</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Web_hosting_service" title="Web hosting service">Hosting</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Clustered_web_hosting" title="Clustered web hosting">Clustered</a></li>

<li><a href="Self-hosting_(web_services)" title="Self-hosting (web services)">Self-hosting</a></li>

<li><a href="Virtual_web_hosting" class="mw-redirect" title="Virtual web hosting">Virtual</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Web_analytics" title="Web analytics">Analytics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Click_analytics" title="Click analytics">Click analytics</a></li>

<li><a href="Mobile_web_analytics" title="Mobile web analytics">Mobile web analytics</a></li>

<li>

<ul><li><a href="Click_tracking" title="Click tracking">Click tracking</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div>

<ul><li><a href="Overselling" title="Overselling">Overselling</a></li>

<li><a href="Web_document" class="mw-redirect" title="Web document">Web document</a></li>

<li><a href="Web_content" title="Web content">Web content</a></li>

<li><a href="Web_content_lifecycle" title="Web content lifecycle">Web content lifecycle</a></li>

<li><a href="Web_server" title="Web server">Web server</a></li>

<li><a href="Web_cache" title="Web cache">Web cache</a></li>

<li><a href="Webmaster" title="Webmaster">Webmaster</a></li>

<li><a href="Website_governance" title="Website governance">Website governance</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Web_hosting_control_panel" title="Web hosting control panel">Hosting control panels</a> (<a href="Comparison_of_web_hosting_control_panels" title="Comparison of web hosting control panels">comparison</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="AlternC" title="AlternC">AlternC</a></li>

<li><a href="CPanel" title="CPanel">cPanel</a></li>

<li><a href="DirectAdmin" title="DirectAdmin">DirectAdmin</a></li>

<li><a href="Domain_Technologie_Control" title="Domain Technologie Control">Domain Technologie Control</a></li>

<li><a href="Froxlor" title="Froxlor">Froxlor</a></li>

<li><a href="ISPConfig" title="ISPConfig">ISPConfig</a></li>

<li><a href="Kloxo" title="Kloxo">Kloxo</a></li>

<li><a href="Plesk" title="Plesk">Plesk</a></li>

<li><a href="Usermin" title="Usermin">Usermin</a></li>

<li><a href="Webmin" title="Webmin">Webmin</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Top-level_domain" title="Top-level domain">Top-level domain</a> registries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="AFNIC" class="mw-redirect" title="AFNIC">AFNIC</a></li>

<li><a href="DNS_Belgium" title="DNS Belgium">DNS Belgium</a></li>

<li><a href="CentralNic" class="mw-redirect" title="CentralNic">CentralNic</a></li>

<li><a href="China_Internet_Network_Information_Center" title="China Internet Network Information Center">CNNIC</a></li>

<li><a href="DENIC" title="DENIC">DENIC</a></li>

<li><a href="EURid" title="EURid">EURid</a></li>

<li><a href="Freenom" class="mw-redirect" title="Freenom">Freenom</a></li>

<li><a href="GoDaddy" title="GoDaddy">GoDaddy</a></li>

<li><a href="Google_Domains" title="Google Domains">Google Domains</a></li>

<li><a href="Identity_Digital" title="Identity Digital">Identity Digital</a></li>

<li><a href="NIC_M%C3%A9xico" title="NIC México">NIC México</a></li>

<li><a href="Nominet" class="mw-redirect" title="Nominet">Nominet</a></li>

<li><a href="Tucows" title="Tucows">Tucows</a></li>

<li><a href="Verisign" title="Verisign">Verisign</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Domain_name" title="Domain name">Domain name</a> managers, <a href="Domain_name_registrar" title="Domain name registrar">registrars</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Bluehost" title="Bluehost">Bluehost</a></li>

<li><a href="Domainz" title="Domainz">Domainz</a></li>

<li><a href="DreamHost" title="DreamHost">DreamHost</a></li>

<li><a href="Dynadot" title="Dynadot">Dynadot</a></li>

<li><a href="Gandi" title="Gandi">Gandi</a></li>

<li><a href="GlowHost" title="GlowHost">GlowHost</a></li>

<li><a href="GMO_Internet" title="GMO Internet">GMO Internet</a></li>

<li><a href="GoDaddy" title="GoDaddy">GoDaddy</a></li>

<li><a href="Google_Domains" title="Google Domains">Google Domains</a></li>

<li><a href="Hover_(domain_registrar)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hover (domain registrar)">Hover</a></li>

<li><a href="Infomaniak" title="Infomaniak">Infomaniak</a></li>

<li><a href="Jimdo" title="Jimdo">Jimdo</a></li>

<li><a href="Namecheap" title="Namecheap">Namecheap</a></li>

<li><a href="Hostinger" title="Hostinger">Hostinger</a></li>

<li><a href="NameSilo" title="NameSilo">NameSilo</a></li>

<li><a href="NearlyFreeSpeech" title="NearlyFreeSpeech">NearlyFreeSpeech</a></li>

<li><a href="Network_Solutions" title="Network Solutions">Network Solutions</a></li>

<li><a href="Register.com" title="Register.com">Register.com</a></li>

<li><a href="Squarespace" title="Squarespace">Squarespace</a></li>

<li>TransIP</li>

<li><a href="Tucows" title="Tucows">Tucows</a></li>

<li>Vimexx</li>

<li><a href="Webcentral" title="Webcentral">Webcentral</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Web_content_management_system" title="Web content management system">Content management system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Document_management_system" title="Document management system">Document management system</a></li>

<li><a href="Wiki_software" title="Wiki software">Wiki software</a></li>

<li><a href="Blog" title="Blog">Blog</a> software</li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

This article is issued from <a class="external text" title="Last edited on 2025-07-13" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/?title=Web_tracking&oldid=1300231665">Wikipedia</a>. The text is available under <a class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted. Additional terms may apply for the media files.

</div>

</div></div>

</div>

</main>

</div>

</body></html>